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2025 Linux Foundation KCSA: Linux Foundation Kubernetes and Cloud Native Security Associate–Professional High Passing Score

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Linux Foundation Kubernetes and Cloud Native Security Associate Sample Questions (Q45-Q50):

NEW QUESTION # 45
What is the difference between gVisor and Firecracker?

A. gVisor is a lightweight virtualization technology for creating and managing secure, multi-tenant container and function-as-a-service (FaaS) workloads. At the same time, Firecracker is a user-space kernel that provides isolation and security for containers.
B. gVisor and Firecracker are two names for the same technology, which provides isolation and security for containers.
C. gVisor and Firecracker are both container runtimes that can be used interchangeably.
D. gVisor is a user-space kernel that provides isolation and security for containers. At the same time, Firecracker is a lightweight virtualization technology for creating and managing secure, multi-tenant container and function-as-a-service (FaaS) workloads.

Answer: D

Explanation:
* gVisor:
* Google-developed, implemented as auser-space kernelthat intercepts and emulates syscalls made by containers.
* Providesstrong isolationwithout requiring a full VM.
* Official docs: "gVisor is a user-space kernel, written in Go, that implements a substantial portion of the Linux system call interface."
* Source: https://gvisor.dev/docs/
* Firecracker:
* AWS-developed,lightweight virtualization technologybuilt on KVM, used in AWS Lambda and Fargate.
* Optimized for running secure, multi-tenant microVMs (MicroVMs) for containers and FaaS.
* Official docs: "Firecracker is an open-source virtualization technology that is purpose-built for creating and managing secure, multi-tenant container and function-based services."
* Source: https://firecracker-microvm.github.io/
* Key difference:gVisor # syscall interception in userspace kernel (container isolation). Firecracker # lightweight virtualization with microVMs (multi-tenant security).
* Therefore, optionAis correct.
References:
gVisor Docs: https://gvisor.dev/docs/
Firecracker Docs: https://firecracker-microvm.github.io/

NEW QUESTION # 46
What information is stored in etcd?

A. Sensitive user data such as usernames and passwords.
B. Application logs and monitoring data for auditing and troubleshooting purposes.
C. Pod data contained in Persistent Volume Claims (e.g. hostPath).
D. Etcd manages the configuration data, state data, and metadata for Kubernetes.

Answer: D

Explanation:
* etcdis Kubernetes'key-value storeforcluster state.
* Stores: ConfigMaps, Secrets, Pod definitions, Deployments, RBAC policies, and metadata.
* Exact extract (Kubernetes Docs - etcd):
* "etcd is a consistent and highly-available key-value store used as Kubernetes' backing store for all cluster data."
* Clarifications:
* B: Logs/metrics are handled by logging/monitoring solutions, not etcd.
* C: Secrets may be stored here but encoded in base64, not specifically "usernames/passwords" as primary use.
* D: Persistent Volumes are external storage, not stored in etcd.
References:
Kubernetes Docs - etcd: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/overview/components/#etcd

NEW QUESTION # 47
A container image istrojanizedby an attacker by compromising the build server. Based on the STRIDE threat modeling framework, which threat category best defines this threat?

A. Tampering
B. Repudiation
C. Spoofing
D. Denial of Service

Answer: A

Explanation:
* In STRIDE,Tamperingis the threat category forunauthorized modification of data or code/artifacts. A trojanized container image is, by definition, an attacker'smodificationof the build output (the image) after compromising the CI/build system-i.e., tampering with the artifact in the software supply chain.
* Why not the others?
* Spoofingis about identity/authentication (e.g., pretending to be someone/something).
* Repudiationis about denying having performed an action without sufficient audit evidence.
* Denial of Servicetargets availability (exhausting resources or making a service unavailable).The scenario explicitly focuses on analtered imageresulting from a compromised build server-this squarely maps toTampering.
Authoritative references (for verification and deeper reading):
* Kubernetes (official docs)- Supply Chain Security (discusses risks such as compromised CI/CD pipelines leading to modified/poisoned images and emphasizes verifying image integrity/signatures).
* Kubernetes Docs#Security#Supply chain securityandSecuring a cluster(sections on image provenance, signing, and verifying artifacts).
* CNCF TAG Security - Cloud Native Security Whitepaper (v2)- Threat modeling in cloud-native and software supply chain risks; describes attackers modifying build outputs (images/artifacts) via CI
/CD compromise as a form oftamperingand prescribes controls (signing, provenance, policy).
* CNCF TAG Security - Software Supply Chain Security Best Practices- Explicitly covers CI/CD compromise leading tomaliciously modified imagesand recommends SLSA, provenance attestation, and signature verification (policy enforcement via admission controls).
* Microsoft STRIDE (canonical reference)- DefinesTamperingasmodifying data or code, which directly fits a trojanized image produced by a compromised build system.

NEW QUESTION # 48
A Kubernetes cluster tenant can launch privileged Pods in contravention of therestricted Pod Security Standardmandated for cluster tenants and enforced by the built-inPodSecurity admission controller.
The tenant has full CRUD permissions on the namespace object and the namespaced resources. How did the tenant achieve this?

A. By deleting the PodSecurity admission controller deployment running in their namespace.
B. By tampering with the namespace labels.
C. By using higher-level access credentials obtained reading secrets from another namespace.
D. The scope of the tenant role means privilege escalation is impossible.

Answer: B

Explanation:
* ThePodSecurity admission controllerenforces Pod Security Standards (Baseline, Restricted, Privileged)based on namespace labels.
* If a tenant has full CRUD on the namespace object, they canmodify the namespace labelsto remove or weaken the restriction (e.g., setting pod-security.kubernetes.io/enforce=privileged).
* This allows privileged Pods to be admitted despite the security policy.
* Incorrect options:
* (A) is false - namespace-level access allows tampering.
* (C) is invalid - PodSecurity admission is not namespace-deployed, it's a cluster-wide admission controller.
* (D) is unrelated - Secrets from other namespaces wouldn't directly bypass PodSecurity enforcement.
References:
Kubernetes Documentation - Pod Security Admission
CNCF Security Whitepaper - Admission control and namespace-level policy enforcement weaknesses.

NEW QUESTION # 49
Why mightNetworkPolicyresources have no effect in a Kubernetes cluster?

A. NetworkPolicy resources are only enforced for unprivileged Pods.
B. NetworkPolicy resources are only enforced if the Kubernetes scheduler supports them.
C. NetworkPolicy resources are only enforced if the networking plugin supports them.
D. NetworkPolicy resources are only enforced if the user has the right RBAC permissions.

Answer: C

Explanation:
* NetworkPolicies define how Pods can communicate with each other and external endpoints.
* However, Kubernetes itselfdoes not enforce NetworkPolicy. Enforcement depends on theCNI plugin used (e.g., Calico, Cilium, Kube-Router, Weave Net).
* If a cluster is using a network plugin that does not support NetworkPolicies, then creating NetworkPolicy objects hasno effect.
References:
Kubernetes Documentation - Network Policies
CNCF Security Whitepaper - Platform security section: notes that security enforcement relies on CNI capabilities.

NEW QUESTION # 50
......

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